Origin of HIV Virus Theories

Origin of HIV Virus Theories

Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) from chimpanzee most likely mutated in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) to cause AIDS.

It is now generally accepted that HIV is a descendant of a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus because certain strains of SIVs bear a very close resemblance to HIV. It is also known that certain viruses can pass between species. Some of the most common theories, which describes about how the viral transfer between animals and humans takes place and how SIV became HIV in humans are explained in detail.

The Hunter Theory: It is the most commonly accepted theory. It is said that the virus (SIV) was transferred to humans as a result of chimps being killed and eaten or their blood getting into cuts or wounds on the hunter. SIV on a few occasions adapted itself within its new human host and become HIV. Every time it passed from a chimpanzee to a man, it would have developed in a slightly different way within his body, and thus produced a slightly different strain.

The Oral Polio Vaccine Theory: In this it is said that the virus was transmitted via various medical experiments (iatrogenically) especially through the polio vaccines. The oral polio vaccine called Chat was given to millions of people in the Belgian Congo, Ruanda and Urundi in the late 1950s. Then it was cultivated on kidney cells taken from the chimps infected with SIV in order to reproduce the vaccine. This is the main source of contamination, which later affected large number of people with HIV. But it was rejected as it was proved that only macaque monkey kidney cells, which cannot be infected with SIV or HIV were used to make Chat. Another reason is that HIV existed in humans before the vaccine trials were carried out.

The Contaminated Needle Theory: African healthcare professionals were using one single syringe to inject multiple patients without any sterilization in between. This could have rapidly have transferred infection from one individual to another resulting in mutation from SIV to HIV.

The Colonialism Theory: The colonial rule in Africa was particularly harsh and the locals were forced into labor camps where sanitation was poor and food was scare. SIV could easily have infiltrated the labor force and taken advantage of their weakened immune systems. Laborers were being inoculated with unsterile needles against diseases such as smallpox to keep them alive and working. Also many of the camps actively employed prostitutes to keep the workers happy. All these factors may have led to the transmission and development of AIDS as a disease.

The Conspiracy Theory: According to a survey, which was carried among African Americans it was found that HIV was manufactured as part of a biological warfare programme, designed to wipe out large numbers of black and homosexual people. There is no evidence to disprove it, cannot be accepted as there were no genetic engineering techniques at that time of emergence of AIDS.

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Early History of AIDS

Early History of AIDS

AIDS was first detected in early 1980s, among gays, Haitians and black Africans

The origin of AIDS has always been a puzzle to the scientific world. It first came to light in the US in the early 1980s. In the history of AIDS there are three periods. The first is the clinical manifestations in the early 80s, when AIDS began in gays, followed by Haitians, people in Africa, and then hemophiliacs resulting in various opportunistic diseases such as pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), unexplained persistent lymphadenopathy, taxoplasmosis and Kaposi's sarcoma. These people showed increased susceptibility to rare opportunistic infection. Following which it was identified that these infections were highly resistant to treatment.

When AIDS became prevalent in US individuals suffered a complete collapse of the immune system. The second is the molecular diagnosis period, when scientists discovered the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It was found that the virus caused impairment of the cell-mediated immunity (CMI). This was due to the loss or destruction of a large number of T-helper cells, which bear the CD4 marker on the surface. The third is the political period which dates to 2000.

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Hand Tips

If you have dry hands, or if you are prone to picking or chewing on your cuticles - Keep a bottle of our Cuticle Oil or Goatsmilk Hand and Body Lotion by your bed, where you watch TV, in your purse, by the sink in the kitchen, EVERYWHERE, and use it often!

Keep a small pair of cuticle nippers with you at all times (Revlon makes an inexpensive Nipper called Nip and Fold Cuticle Nipper) and whenever you have a piece of dry skin that you are tempted to pick or pull, clip the dry skin as close as possible and then use plenty of hand lotion or oil.

Our Sugar Scrub will help to exfoliate the dry skin on your hands. Use it as often as you like. It is also great for dry elbows, feet, and legs.

Glycerine Soap is very mild and moisturizing, and will keep your hands soft. Stay away from harsh detergents and deodorant soaps. Palmolive is one of the best dishwashing liquids for your hands.

Hand Tips

If you have dry hands, or if you are prone to picking or chewing on your cuticles - Keep a bottle of our Cuticle Oil or Goatsmilk Hand and Body Lotion by your bed, where you watch TV, in your purse, by the sink in the kitchen, EVERYWHERE, and use it often!

Keep a small pair of cuticle nippers with you at all times (Revlon makes an inexpensive Nipper called Nip and Fold Cuticle Nipper) and whenever you have a piece of dry skin that you are tempted to pick or pull, clip the dry skin as close as possible and then use plenty of hand lotion or oil.

Our Sugar Scrub will help to exfoliate the dry skin on your hands. Use it as often as you like. It is also great for dry elbows, feet, and legs.

Glycerine Soap is very mild and moisturizing, and will keep your hands soft. Stay away from harsh detergents and deodorant soaps. Palmolive is one of the best dishwashing liquids for your hands.

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History of AIDS and the HIV Virus A brief history of AIDS. For more history on HIV and AIDS use the advanced search. AIDS, originally referred to as "gay cancer", "gay plague" or GRID (gay related immune deficiency) was first documented in 1981, when The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported an abnormally large number of reports of a rare form of cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis, in homosexual males. Less than a year later, the list of groups "at risk" of developing AIDS had grown to include intravenous drug users, recent Haitian immigrants and hemophiliacs regardless of sexual persuasion. The virus that causes AIDS, human immunodeficiency virus, was first discovered by French scientists in 1983. Since the initial discovery of the disease in January of 1981, it is estimated that AIDS has claimed more than 25 million lives worldwide, making it one of the most destructive pandemics in world history. Unfortunately, the stigma associated with the disease caused initial calls for research to fall on deaf ears. By the time President Ronald Reagan declared AIDS "public health enemy No. 1" in April of 1987, the disease had already claimed nearly 20,000 lives in America alone. Often reported to be a disease that only affected gays and IV drug users, by 1987, AIDS was being discovered in nearly every strata of society, in every age group. In 1988, Surgeon General C. Everett Koop announced his plan to mail an informational brochure on AIDS to every American household. The brochure explained in explicit language how AIDS was and was not transmitted and did much to shed light on the disease. However, despite these efforts and the fact that AIDS took the lives of celebrities like actor Rock Hudson and Liberace in the 1980s, it was the story of teenage AIDS victimRyan White, which brought AIDS into America's living rooms. Ryan, a white heterosexual male, was infected with HIV while receiving the blood product Factor VIII as part of his treatment for hemophilia. Ryan worked to educate people on the nature of the disease, and to show that there was little or no danger in associating with those infected. Ryan died in April of 1990, his funeral, a standing room only event in Indianapolis, Indiana, was attended by celebrities such as Elton John and Michael Jackson. The revelation that other heterosexual male celebrities, such as Magic Johnson and Arthur Ashe, were affected by HIV and AIDS, simply served to drive home the message that Ryan had spent the last years of his life trying to convey, AIDS is not a "gay disease." In August of 1990, four months and 10 days after Ryan White's death, President George H.W. Bush signed the United States' first piece of major AIDS legislation, the Ryan WhiteComprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act into law. The bill authorized $881 million in relief funds to the 16 cities hardest hit by the epidemic. However, Congress only appropriated $350 million. President Bush also signed the Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA) in 1990 which sought to protect people with HIV/AIDS from discrimination. The 90s saw several breakthroughs in AIDS research and the development of new drugs meant to combat the disease. Although AZT, the first drug approved to fight HIV, had been on the market since 1987, the introduction of protease inhibitors such as Saquinavirmarked a major advancement in the medical treatment of the disease. Nevertheless, as the death toll rose, voices from an ever diversifying section of society increased the calls for education and research. By the end of the 90s, AIDS had claimed nearly 300,000 Americans and nearly seven million people worldwide. In 2001, the United Nations approved its "blueprint" for fighting the global AIDS epidemic, calling for the creation of a global fund of up to $10 billion to combat AIDS in the developing world. In 2003, President George W. Bush signed a bill authorizing up to $15 billion for Global AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria treatment in developing nations. However, the Global AIDS epidemic continues to spiral out of control, with nearly 40.3 million people now living with the HIV virus. The vast majority of cases are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, where as many 25.8 million people are living with the disease.

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What Is Postpartum Depression

This condition can be described as feeling sad, blue, unhappy, miserable, or down in the dumps. Most of us feel this way at one time or another for short periods. But true clinical depression is a mood disorder in which feelings of sadness, loss, anger, or frustration interfere with everyday life for an extended time.

Postpartum depression can be mild, moderate, or severe. The degree of depression, which your doctor can determine, influences how you are treated.

Prevalence Of Postpartum Depression During And After Pregnancy

Depression that occurs during pregnancy or within a year after delivery is called perinatal depression. The exact number of women with depression during this time is unknown. But researchers believe that depression is one of the most common complications during and after pregnancy.

Often, the depression is not recognized or treated, because some normal pregnancy changes cause similar symptoms and are happening at the same time. Tiredness, problems sleeping, stronger emotional reactions, and changes in body weight may occur during pregnancy and after pregnancy. But these symptoms may also be signs of depression.

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What Are Dietary Supplements Dietary products that are intended to enhance the diet; contain one or more dietary ingredients (including vitamins, minerals herbs or other botanicals; amino acids; and other substances) or their constituents; are intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid; and are labeled on the front panel as being a nutritional product. Dietary Supplements play an important role in health. For example, pregnant women can take the vitamin folic acid to prevent certain birth defects in their babies. Taking nutritional products can also be a type of complementary or alternative medicine (CAM). Due to the nutrient depletion in commercially available foods most people are not able to meet their requirements for vitamins by just eating a varied diet, yet there are certain groups of the population who have higher than normal requirements, for example; the sick, those taking certain drugs and pregnant women. In addition to eating a varied diet, such people need to ensure they eat foods rich in particular vitamins and take dietary products. Infants and young children are recommended to have nutritional products of vitamins A and D for at least 2 years. Some women many require additional iron if menstrual losses are high. Dietary Products - Different From Foods And Drugs Although nutritional products in the United States are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as foods, they are regulated differently from other foods and from drugs. Whether a product is classified as a nutritional product, conventional food, or drug is based on its intended use. Most often, classification as a nutritional product is determined by the information that the manufacturer provides on the product label or in accompanying literature, although some food and nutritional product labels do not include this information. Evaluating Health Benefits And Safety Scientists use several approaches to evaluate dietary products for their potential health benefits and safety risks, including their history of use and laboratory studies using cell or animal studies. Studies involving people (individual case reports, observational studies, and clinical trials) can provide information that is relevant to how dietary supplements are used. Researchers may conduct a systematic review to summarize and evaluate a group of clinical trials that meet certain criteria. A meta-analysis is a review that includes a statistical analysis of data combined from many studies. To take a nutritional product as safely as possible: Tell your doctor about any nutritional products you use Do not take a bigger dose than the label recommends Stop taking it if you have side effects Read trustworthy information about the nutritional product

Related Topics Dietary Supplements Antioxidants Electrolytes Glucosamine Phytoestrogens Minerals Phytochemicals Vitamins Senate Document No264

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AIDS

What is AIDS?

AIDS stands for: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

AIDS is a medical condition. A person is diagnosed with AIDS when their immune system is too weak to fight off infections.

Since AIDS was first identified in the early 1980s, an unprecedented number of people have been affected by the global AIDS epidemic. Today, there are an estimated 33 million people living with HIV/AIDS.

What causes AIDS?

AIDS is caused by HIV.

HIV is a virus that gradually attacks immune system cells. As HIV progressively damages these cells, the body becomes more vulnerable to infections, which it will have difficulty in fighting off. It is at the point of very advanced HIV infection that a person is said to have AIDS. It can be years before HIV has damaged the immune system enough for AIDS to develop.

What are the symptoms of AIDS?

A person is diagnosed with AIDS when they have developed an AIDS-related condition or symptom, called an opportunistic infection, or an AIDS-related cancer. The infections are called ‘opportunistic’ because they take advantage of the opportunity offered by a weakened immune system.

It is possible for someone to be diagnosed with AIDS even if they have not developed an opportunistic infection. AIDS can be diagnosed when the number of immune system cells (CD4 cells) in the blood of an HIV positive person drops below a certain level.

Can AIDS be treated?

A community health worker gives an HIV positive patient antiretroviral drugs, Kenya

Antiretroviral treatment can prolong the time between HIV infection and the onset of AIDS. Modern combination therapy is highly effective and someone with HIV who is taking treatment could live for the rest of their life without developing AIDS.

An AIDS diagnosis does not necessarily equate to a death sentence. Many people can still benefit from starting antiretroviral therapy even once they have developed an AIDS-defining illness. Better treatment and prevention for opportunistic infections have also helped to improve the quality and length of life for those diagnosed with AIDS.

Treating some opportunistic infections is easier than others. Infections such as herpes zoster and candidiasis of the mouth, throat or vagina, can be managed effectively in most environments. On the other hand, more complex infections such as toxoplasmosis, need advanced medical equipment and infrastructure, which are lacking in many resource-poor areas.

It is also important that treatment is provided for AIDS related pain, which is experienced by almost all people in the very advanced stages of HIV infection.

Is there a cure for AIDS?

Worryingly, many people think there is a 'cure' for AIDS - which makes them feel safer, and perhaps take risks that they otherwise wouldn’t. However, there is still no cure for AIDS. The only way to stay safe is to be aware of how HIV is transmitted and how to prevent HIV infection.

How many people have died from AIDS?

Since the first cases of AIDS were identified in 1981, more than 25 million people have died from AIDS.

Why do people still develop AIDS today?

Even though antiretroviral treatment can prevent the onset of AIDS in a person living with HIV, many people are still diagnosed with AIDS today. There are four main reasons for this:

• In many resource-poor countries antiretroviral treatment is not widely available. Even in wealthier countries, such as America, many individuals are not covered by health insurance and cannot afford treatment.
• Some people who became infected with HIV in the early years of the epidemic before combination therapy was available, have subsequently developed drug resistance and therefore have limited treatment options.
• Many people are never tested for HIV and only become aware they are infected with the virus once they have developed an AIDS-related illness. These people are at a higher risk of mortality, as they tend to respond less well to treatment at this stage.
• Sometimes people taking treatment are unable to adhere to, or tolerate the side effectsof drugs.

Caring for a person with AIDS

In the later stages of AIDS, a person will need palliative care and emotional support. In many parts of the world, friends, family and AIDS organisations provide home based care. This is particularly the case in countries with high HIV prevalence and overstretched healthcare systems.

End of life care becomes necessary when a person has reached the very final stages of AIDS. At this stage, preparing for death and open discussion about whether a person is going to die often helps in addressing concerns and ensuring final wishes are followed.

The global AIDS epidemic

Around 2.7 million people became infected with HIV in 2007 and in the same year 2 million people died from AIDS. Sub-Saharan Africa has been hardest hit by the epidemic; in 2007 around three quarters of AIDS deaths were in this region.

Parc de l'espoir - AIDS Memorial Park in Montreal, Canada

The epidemic has had a devastating impact on societies, economies and infrastructures. In countries most severely affected, life expectancy has been reduced by as much as 20 years. Young adults in their productive years are the most at-risk population, so many countries have faced a slow-down in economic growth and an increase in household poverty. In Asia, HIV/AIDS causes a greater loss of productivity than any other disease. An adult’s most productive years are also their most reproductive and so many of the age group who have died from AIDS have left children behind. In sub-Saharan Africa the AIDS epidemic hasorphaned nearly 12 million children.

In recent years, the response to the epidemic has been intensified; in the past ten years in low- and middle-income countries there has been a 6-fold increase in spending for HIV and AIDS. The number of people on antiretroviral treatment has increased, the annual number of AIDS deaths has declined, and the global percentage of people infected with HIV has stabilised.

However, recent achievements should not lead to complacent attitudes. In all parts of the world, people living with HIV still face AIDS-related stigma and discrimination, and many people still cannot access sufficient HIV treatment and care. In America and some countries of Western and Central andEastern Europe, infection rates are rising, indicating that HIV prevention is just as important now as it ever has been. Prevention efforts that have proved to be effective need to be scaled-up and treatment targets reached. Commitments from national governments right down to the community level need to be intensified and subsequently met, so that one day the world might see an end to the global AIDS epidemic.

Learn more about HIV and AIDS

In addition to the hundreds of informative pages about HIV/AIDS, the AVERT website has interactive ways to learn more about HIV and AIDS.

• The AVERT AIDS Game is a great way to see how much you know about HIV and AIDS.
• You can test your knowledge of HIV and AIDS by trying one of our online quizzes.
• Our photo gallery has hundreds of HIV and AIDS related photos from around the world.
• The AVERT video page has a number of short videos related to HIV and AIDS.
• Finally, you can read stories that have been sent to us from people who are either living with HIV or who have been affected by HIV/AIDS.

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Pregnancy and Bladder Control

Pregnancy and Bladder Control
One more surprise for your pregnant body: little bladder leaks!

Isn't pregnancy great?! Your body goes through a zillion wonderful, crazy, awful, mysterious changes — totally out of control, on its way to delivering your cute little bundle of joy. And, for many women, those changes include occasional urine leaks. As your baby grows, it puts pressure on your bladder. A sneeze, cough or even a hearty laugh adds even more pressure on your bladder and can trigger this "bladder weakness." According to medical experts, your situation is common and most likely temporary.
More than 50% of first time pregnant moms and up to 85% of second-timers develop bladder weakness.

Bladder weakness may begin in the first trimester but it's more common in the third trimester when the baby's growth accelerates. Then the expanding uterus leans up against the bladder almost continuously. A pregnant woman produces large amounts of progesterone, a muscle-relaxing hormone that helps make room for baby but can also contribute to unwanted urine leaks. About 40% of pregnant women also may experience urge incontinence: a sudden, uncontrollable need to urinate. So how can the mother-to-be hold on against Mother Nature's barrage to her bladder?
Good news! Bladder weakness usually goes away quickly once baby is born.

It usually clears up within a few days to a few weeks after birth as muscle tone returns and hormone levels drop to normal. It can hang around longer if mom is a little older than usual, or if this is not her first pregnancy, or if she had a particularly difficult delivery. And, a few women may continue to have some weakness ongoing. However, diet, exercise, biofeedback, bladder retraining, medications, and several other treatments are available to help minimize or eliminate lingering bladder weakness. POISE® absorbent products can also help play a role by offering outstanding absorbency (better than similar length maxi pads!) and helping lock in wetness and odor with special absorbent materials. At any rate talk to your doctor at the first sign of bladder weakness. (S)he will be able to help determine what's best for you.

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Caring for Your New Organ

Caring for Your New Organ

Most transplant recipients are at risk of a rejection episode at some point. A rejection episode can be scary, but it usually does not mean that the organ has stopped, or will stop, working. Rejection occurs when your immune system tries to destroy your new organ, which is a natural response. Your immune system is "programmed" to fight foreign invaders in your body such as viruses, bacteria, and, unfortunately, your new organ. Today's anti-rejection medications are stronger and better able to prevent rejection episodes than ever before. 
Preventing Organ Rejection

The best way to prevent rejection is to take all medications exactly as prescribed by your doctor - take them in the right amount, at the right time, without missing a single dose. CLICK HERE for tips to help you stick to your medication regimen and CLICK HERE for advice in case you have problems getting your medications. If you do miss a dose, call your transplant coordinator right away.
What to Do if Rejection Occurs

Rejection can be stopped if it is recognized and treated early. Many patients do not have any symptoms of rejection, which is why it is so important to keep your follow-up exams with your transplant team. However, by learning the warning signs of rejection, you can take an active role in keeping your transplanted organ working properly. Being aware of the signs of rejection and calling your doctor as soon as symptoms occur can prevent serious damage to the organ. The table below lists some of the warning signs of rejection.

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Diseased Blood Vessels

Diseased Blood Vessels

Transplant recipients have a higher risk of developing diseased blood vessels. Some anti-rejection medications increase the risk of high cholesterol (blood fats), which can clog arteries and restrict the flow of blood to the heart and brain. 

Coronary artery disease is more likely to develop when the amount of fat in the blood is too high. Vessels supplying blood to the heart become narrowed. Large deposits of fat can completely block blood vessels and stop the flow of blood. If an artery that supplies blood to your heart becomes blocked, a heart attack can occur. Symptoms of a heart attack include cramping, heavy feeling in the chest, shortness of breath, and extreme tiredness. If you experience any of these symptoms, go to a hospital emergency room right away.

Likewise, cerebrovascular disease refers to diseased arteries in the brain. If an artery that supplies blood to the brain becomes blocked by deposits of fat, a stroke can occur. Partial blockage may temporarily reduce the blood supply to the brain. A complete loss of blood supply to the brain results in a stroke. Symptoms of a stroke include lightheadedness, dizziness, paralysis, loss of ability to speak, slurred speech, confusion, and inappropriate behavior. If you experience any of these symptoms, go to a hospital emergency room right away.

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Kidney Disease

Kidney Disease

Kidney function is often decreased in transplant recipients. This may be caused by a pre-existing condition such as diabetes, hypertension, or injury to the kidney before a transplant. Or it may be caused by medications used to prevent rejection after a transplant. The best way to help prevent kidney disease is to keep your blood pressure and blood sugar under control and to maintain a healthy weight. In addition, regular checkups with blood and urine tests will give your doctor important information for detecting early changes in kidney function and allowing appropriate steps to be taken.

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Diabetes

Diabetes
Glucose is the main sugar found in the blood and it is the body's main source of energy. However, too much sugar in the blood can cause many health problems, including diabetes, heart disease, kidney injury, nerve damage, and eye problems. It may also be related to rejection or the use of steroids.

Insulin, which is produced by the pancreas, enables glucose to move from your blood into cells so it can be used as energy. In patients with diabetes, the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body does not respond to insulin. Glucose is not absorbed and blood levels become high.

Diabetes after a transplant is more common in transplant recipients who have a family history of diabetes as well as those who are overweight, are taking steroids, or have hepatitis C. Diabetes after a transplant is also more common among African Americans and other ethnic groups. For all transplant recipients, it is best to eat a healthy diet and exercise regularly to avoid weight gain and reduce the risk of developing high blood glucose or diabetes.

Signs and Symptoms of Diabetes

For most people, the normal range of blood sugar before eating is less than 126 mg/dL. Your blood glucose will go up after you eat. You may need your transplant team's supervision for controlling your blood sugar.

The signs of high blood sugar include:
Frequent urination
Extreme thirst and hunger
Sudden weight loss
Blurred vision
Repeated infections
Fatigue
Headache

Controlling Blood Sugar Levels

A healthy diet is needed to prevent diabetes or to help control your glucose if diabetes does occur. Be sure to choose foods from the 5 main food groups: grains, vegetables, fruits, milk, and meat and beans. The American Diabetes Association recommends eating:



Eat whole grains, breads, and cereals such as barley, bran, oats, wheat, and brown rice (1 ounce is about 1 slice of bread, 1 cup of breakfast cereal, or _ cup of rice)
Eat dark-green vegetables such as broccoli, spinach, and green beans
Eat a variety of fruits such as berries, apples, pears, and peaches
Choose low-fat dairy products such as skim or low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese
Choose high-protein foods such as fish, poultry, lean meat, eggs, nuts, and beans

The main nutrients that are found in the foods we eat include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Carbohydrates provide energy. Healthy carbohydrates include whole grain breads, whole grain cereals, peas, beans, lentils, fruits, and vegetables. Proteins are also important for increasing energy and strength. Choose low-fat dairy products, fish, chicken, and lean meat for a good source of protein. In addition, high-fiber foods such as beans, peas, whole grains, bran cereals, vegetables, and some fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, and oranges, are healthy for people with diabetes because they can help lower blood sugar and fat.

How much you need to eat each day depends on how many calories your body burns. Maintaining your body weight requires a balance between calorie intake and the number of calories you use each day through regular daily activities and exercise. Many transplant recipients are surprised at how few calories are needed to maintain a healthy body weight. Your transplant coordinator or dietician can help determine your recommended daily calorie intake. Limiting the amount of fats and sugar in your diet can also help to maintain a healthy level of blood sugar.


Treatment Options for Controlling Diabetes

There are several types of medications that are currently available for patients with diabetes. The table below lists some of the medications that are used to treat diabetes. They are grouped by how they work to control blood sugar.

For many transplant recipients, insulin injections 2 to 4 times a day or an insulin pump is the best option for controlling blood sugar. Or, you may be given an oral medication to control blood sugar levels. Your transplant team will determine which medication is right for you.

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High Blood Pressure

High Blood Pressure

High blood pressure (hypertension) is a common problem for up to 90% of transplant recipients. 

Blood is carried from the heart to all parts of the body in vessels called arteries. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as it is being pumped through them. Hypertension occurs when the force of blood against the artery walls is greater than normal, causing the heart to pump harder. High blood pressure can damage the arteries and the heart, increasing the risk of a stroke, a heart attack, kidney problems, or heart failure.

Blood pressure is always reported as 2 numbers: the systolic and diastolic pressures. Both numbers are important. Systolic pressure is the highest pressure when the heart beats, pumping blood into the arteries. Diastolic pressure is the value when the heart is at rest, in between beats. Systolic pressure is reported first, followed by diastolic (for example, 120/80 mm Hg — 120 is the systolic pressure and 80 is the diastolic pressure, and mm Hg refers to millimeters of mercury, which is the standard measurement for blood pressure).

What Causes High Blood Pressure?

For many patients, the cause of hypertension is not known. However, people with kidney disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure before the transplant are at higher risk of high blood pressure after the transplant. Other factors that contribute to high blood pressure after a transplant include a diet high in salt, clogged arteries, high blood fats, smoking, obesity, and some anti-rejection medications such as cyclosporine, tacrolimus, and steroids (prednisone).

Diagnosing High Blood Pressure

People with a blood pressure of 140/90 mm Hg or higher are considered hypertensive. While most transplant recipients should have a blood pressure of 130/80 mm Hg, the ideal blood pressure can vary from person to person. Be sure to ask your transplant team what your ideal blood pressure should be and what is considered too high and too low.Classification Systolic Pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic Pressure (mm Hg)

Normal Less than 120 Less than 80

Prehypertension 120-139 80-89

Stage 1 hypertension 140-159 90-99

Stage 2 hypertension 160 or higher 100 or higher



High blood pressure usually does not cause any symptoms, which is why it is important to have yours checked by your transplant team at regular follow-up exams. Your transplant team may also want you to monitor your blood pressure closely while at home. Getting your own blood pressure cuff may be recommended. Your local pharmacist can help you select a blood pressure cuff that is easy to use and relatively inexpensive. Some insurance plans will pay for a cuff.

It is a good idea to take your blood pressure cuff with you to your follow-up exams so you can get a good reading. Many digital cuffs tend to run about 10 points higher than traditional blood pressure cuffs used in doctors' offices.
Risk Factors for Hypertension That You Can Change

Making some lifestyle changes can lower your blood pressure and prevent hypertension. The table below lists recommended changes for healthier living.

Managing Hypertension

Too much salt (sodium) in your diet may increase your chances of developing high blood pressure. It is recommended that you eat no more than 2,000 milligrams (mg) of sodium a day, which equals about 1 teaspoon of table salt. Recent studies have shown that a diet with less than 1,500 mg of sodium (less than 1/2 teaspoon of table salt) can lower your blood pressure even further. It is important to read food labels to see how much sodium there is in each serving of food. It can be very surprising to learn that some foods have higher amounts of sodium than you would expect.

To reduce the amount of salt that you eat, make these dietary changes:
Do not add salt to your food — this can reduce your sodium intake by 50%
Cook with as little salt, onion salt, or garlic salt as possible
Use herbs and spices to add flavor instead of salt
Avoid salty foods such as crackers, pretzels, potato chips, salted nuts, salted popcorn, and salted french fries
Avoid canned, processed, or preserved foods that contain high amounts of salt (sodium) such as processed meats, canned soups, vegetable juices, frozen dinners, and pickles
Avoid instant dinners or side dish mixes that include seasoning packets (eg, Hamburger Helper®, Rice-A-Roni®, Top Ramen® noodles)
Avoid the use of soy sauce, canned spaghetti sauce, packaged gravy, and seasoning mixes
Do not use salt substitutes (Lite Salt®, No Salt®, Salt Sense®) unless your transplant team says it is okay because they can be high in potassium

Drinking too much alcohol can also raise your blood pressure. If you drink alcoholic beverages, limit them to only a moderate amount, which is 1 drink a day for women and 2 drinks a day for men. A drink consists of 12 ounces of beer (150 calories), 5 ounces of wine (100 calories), or 1 ounce of 80-proof liquor (100 calories).


Treating High Blood Pressure With Medication

Sometimes hypertension can be controlled with lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise, but most patients also require medication. There are a variety of medications for treating and controlling hypertension. The most commonly prescribed medications include ACE inhibitors, ARBs, calcium channel blockers, beta-blockers, and diuretics. Some of these medications may have interactions with certain anti-rejection medications. Listed in the table below are some of the anti-hypertensive medications that are currently available. You can go to the American Heart Association Web site at www.americanheart.org for more information.

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